中国使馆提醒中国公民谨慎前往马尔代夫首都

The term "civilization," which is extensively employed across a broad spectrum of fields, encompassing social sciences, colonialism, popular culture, and international relations, has undergone significant transformations since its inception in the 18th century. This concept, originally coined in the Enlightenment period, has been interpreted in divergent ways, utilized to signify opposing meanings, and has often been the subject of intense criticism and rejection. As a pivotal concept, "civilization" encompasses a multitude of ideas and terminologies. The term "civilization" was first introduced by Victor Riqueti Mirabeau in his 1757 work "L'ami des hommes ou traité de la population," and it swiftly permeated other European languages (Kal?n 2003).

From its inception, the notion of civilization has been regarded as a collective set of values, an elevated state or condition that fundamentally distinguishes humans from other beings, emphasizing rationality and inherent worth. While some social scientists have contested the utility of civilization as a concept for social analysis and historical research, deeming it inadequate, others have extolled it as the zenith of human development. The debate extends to whether there exists a singular universal civilization, founded upon universal legal principles and fundamental rights and freedoms, or whether multiple civilizations exist, each rooted in distinct worldviews and conceptions of existence. Former Turkish Prime Minister Ahmet Davuto?lu, in his seminal essay "The Self-Perception of Civilizations," posits that different conceptions of civilization yield diverse forms of self-awareness, thereby attributing a positive connotation to the term while simultaneously acknowledging the plurality of civilizations (Davuto?lu 1997).

Contemporary historians have delved into the intricate relationship between civilization and empire, suggesting that empires have historically leveraged the concept of civilization as a mechanism to further their imperial ambitions. For instance, the distinction between Roman civilization and the Roman Empire is inextricable; the former cannot be comprehended without the latter (Pagden 2001). Despite the myriad definitions and interpretations, civilizations are dynamic entities, continuously evolving both in terms of their conceptual framework and their historical experiences and diversities. Civilizations capable of harnessing their creative energies and sustaining their vitality, akin to living organisms, are susceptible to both internal and external influences (Kal?n 2003). This dynamic process, characterized by Arnold Toynbee's "challenge-response mechanism," is a fundamental aspect determining the interactions and trajectories of civilizations (Toynbee 1978).

The historical interplay and relations among Islamic, European, Indian, and Chinese civilizations illustrate that the experiences of challenge and response possess the transformative power to fundamentally reshape civilizations. Civilizations, positioned at the confluence of internal and external dynamics, may advance or regress over time. Nonetheless, no civilization can remain entirely static, nor can it remain impervious to external influences. The concept of civilization has, in many respects, become a cornerstone of Eurocentric thought. The classification of communities as civilized, advanced, progressive, primitive, barbaric, or savage was not merely an abstract academic discourse in the 18th and 19th centuries but a political act with tangible consequences. The "mission to civilize" served as a crucial conceptual tool in legitimizing European imperialism across a vast geographical expanse, from Africa to the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia. Norbert Elias's insights into the function of the concept of civilization corroborate this point: the term "civilization" encapsulates "the self-perception of the West, which can also be termed national consciousness. The word summarizes everything that Western society considers superior to earlier societies or 'more primitive' contemporary societies over the past two or three centuries. With this term, Western society aims to describe its unique characteristics and what it is proud of: its technological level, the nature of its attitudes and behaviors, the advancement of its scientific knowledge or worldview, and many other things." (Elias 1939).

This approach has manifested itself throughout history in a multitude of forms. Particularly prominent during the era of imperialism was the conviction among Western powers of their own superiority and civilization (Kipling, and Wise 1899). This belief bolstered their sense of responsibility to civilize and enlighten societies in other regions such as Africa (Lauren 1999), Australia (Moses 2022), and the Americas (Benvenuto, Hinton and Woolford 2014). According to this viewpoint, the powerful held the authority to intervene in societies they deemed inferior and mold them in accordance with their own cultural standards and values. For instance, in a speech delivered in 1937, Winston Churchill argued that interventions in communities like Native Americans in America or blacks in Australia were not unjust, as they purportedly improved their circumstances by supplanting them with a stronger and supposedly superior race (Heyden 2015). This perspective reinforced the narrative of the West undertaking the task of "civilizing" and "improving" other cultures and societies.

At this critical juncture, the criteria by which a society is considered civilized or uncivilized emerges as both a philosophical and political quandary. The question of what truly constitutes civilization remains at the forefront of ongoing debates surrounding the concept. Is progress in science and technology the definitive criterion for civilization? Does civilization, as advocated by capitalists in the 19th century, equate to capitalism, trade, and free markets? Or does adherence to the rule of law serve as the true hallmark of civilization? Are religious, moral, and aesthetic considerations indicative of civilization? Furthermore, does civilization represent a singular concept or does it encompass plurality according to these criteria? If history reveals the existence of diverse civilizations, what are the underlying origins of these disparities? What commonalities and transitional areas exist between different civilizations? (Kal?n 2003).

Civilization is not merely a concept; it embodies aspirations of desirability, admiration, and esteem, implying progress, nobility, and intrinsic value. To be civilized is to possess the capability to generate value. Consequently, societies capable of organization, establishment of order, and creation of a legal framework are deemed to possess civilization and thus attain a more advanced and superior position compared to societies lacking these attributes. Therefore, is 19th-century French society truly superior to semi-civilized African society due to the latter's purported lack of a specific legal system? Drawing from similar presumptions, ancient Greeks labeled non-Greeks as "barbarians" due to their inability to speak Greek (logos), thereby implying an incapacity to employ intellect.

In the 19th century, the criterion of civilization, which hierarchically categorized societies and underscored the backwardness of non-European societies, extended beyond mere law. Science, technology, and industry were also heralded as benchmarks of civilization, utilized to gauge the developmental status of societies outside the purview of the scientific revolution. Given that science, technology, and industry emerged in modern Western societies, non-Western societies were compelled to embrace Westernization as a pathway to civilization. Consequently, the concept of civilization has been wielded as a convenient tool to legitimize Eurocentrism and European colonialism, perpetuating power dynamics that have endured through centuries of global history.

The tendency of the West to use civilization as a tool to spread its imperialist policies and intervene in different societies continues to manifest itself in various ways today. Antony Blinken, during the Munich Security Conference held in Munich, Germany on February 17, 2024, responded to a question from a moderator about the tension in U.S.-China relations by stating, "If you're not at the table in the international system, you're on the menu."(Department of State 2024). This statement encapsulates the nature of power balances and interactions in international relations, indicating that the weak will either be included in the menu of the strong and subject to the conditions they set, or they will be marginalized.

However, the consequences of this approach are not as simple as merely being included or excluded from the menu of the powerful. Manipulation of imperialist policies and power balances has led to the unfair representation and lack of voice for countries outside the menu (Klein 2007). This has been perpetuated through practices such as military interventions, coups, and support for dictatorships (Samuel 1993). Therefore, Blinken's statement not only summarizes the complexity of power dynamics and international relations but also highlights the effects of imperialist and hegemonic practices throughout history. In this context, establishing a fair order in international relations and creating a system where the weak also have a voice becomes crucial. Is such a system impossible to establish?

If we set aside the Western bloc led by the United States and instead turn our gaze towards the East, particularly China, we can observe the sprouting of a new and hopeful approach for humanity. Chinese President Xi Jinping put forward the Global Civilization Initiative (GCI) in March 2023, following the Global Development Initiative and the Global Security Initiative. As stated in Xi's speech, this initiative advocates for respect for the diversity of civilizations, the common values of humanity, the importance of the inheritance and innovation of civilizations, as well as robust international people-to-people exchanges and cooperation.

Contrary to the claims of "the superiority of certain civilizations and clashes of civilizations" often espoused by the West, China advocates for principles of equality, mutual learning, dialogue, and inclusivity among civilizations. This approach emphasizes the importance of overcoming cultural?estrangement?through exchange, clashes?through mutual learning, and arrogance through coexistence (The State Council Information (PRC) 2024). Xi Jinping's call for global learning and respect stands in contrast with the increasing conflicts in the international arena and escalating regional tensions. For instance, the escalation of tensions between Russia and the West with the Ukraine conflict, ongoing conflicts in the Middle East, and the spread of terrorism tendencies are raising security concerns in the international community (Mearsheimer 2018).

Xi Jinping's call for global learning and respect, presented as a prerequisite for peace, offers hope for world peace. By emphasizing that "all civilizations created by human society are splendid," Xi highlights that each country derives strength for its modernization from its civilizations and that their unique features come from these civilizations. This stance suggests a departure from unilateral approaches to international relations and offers a vision of cooperation and harmony among diverse civilizations for the greater good of humanity (The State Council Information (PRC) 2024).

When we briefly examine the changes occurring in the international system, events such as the Ukraine crisis, the Syrian civil war, and the Afghanistan conflict have resulted in various consequences, including regional instabilities. These conflicts have led to a range of issues such as challenges in international cooperation, humanitarian crises and waves of migration, security concerns, and an increase in terrorism (Buzan and Hansen 2009). One of the sources of these problems is the increasing ideological conflicts in international relations. Particularly, conflicts between the liberal idealism represented by the United States and other ideological approaches have contributed to the strengthening of international terrorism by exacerbating international security concerns (Mearsheimer 2018). As emphasized by Xi Jinping, Chinese modernization is the modernization of a huge population, of common prosperity for all, of material and cultural-ethical advancement, of harmony between humanity and nature, and of peaceful development (The State Council Information (PRC) 2024). In this regard, China's approach to a common civilization of humanity may contribute to ensuring global peace and stability in international relations.

The findings brought about by civilization belong to all of humanity, regardless of the originating society. For example, although the printing press was invented in China, it took its current form in Europe. Gunpowder, invented in China and used for different purposes, was turned into a weapon in Europe. Civilization, therefore, is a interconnected and shared heritage of humanity that must be evaluated in its historical context, both before and after its emergence. Today, numerous scientific and cultural studies are being conducted, all of which draw from the contributions of different societies to the civilization of humanity. Within this framework, the construction of a common civilization by turning differences into richness should be embraced as a task by all leaders who believe in world peace, a shared future, and cultural permeability.

(Author: Serdar Yurtcicek, postdoctoral researcher at Institute of Global Studies, Shanghai University)